Personal Finance Fast Facts (2026)
Canonical numbers for personal finance — every figure on this page is cited to a primary source (IRS, Federal Reserve, NY Fed, NYU Stern). Bookmark this page; we update it monthly. If you reuse a figure, follow its source link and cite this page with the relevant review date.
S&P 500 real returns by decade
Inflation-adjusted (real) total returns. Long-run real return: ~7% per year. Source: Damodaran NYU Stern, S&P 500 historical returns.
| Decade | Real return / yr | Context |
|---|---|---|
| 1930s | -0.4% | Great Depression |
| 1940s | +4.2% | WWII recovery + post-war boom |
| 1950s | +16.3% | Best real-return decade of the century |
| 1960s | +5.7% | Late-decade inflation begins |
| 1970s | -0.4% | Stagflation; only negative real decade besides 1930s |
| 1980s | +11.5% | Disinflation + Reagan-era equity rally |
| 1990s | +14.7% | Tech boom; ended with dot-com peak |
| 2000s | -3.4% | Dot-com crash + GFC |
| 2010s | +11.4% | Post-GFC recovery + ZIRP tailwind |
| 2020s (to date) | +5.9% | COVID rally + 2022 drawdown + AI rally |
The 4% rule (historical starting-rate illustration)
4.0% is a historical starting-rate illustration. Backtests cover specific horizons, portfolio mixes, withdrawal rules and historical periods; they do not establish a universal success rate. For a 40- or 50-year planning scenario, compare lower starting rates as well as spending flexibility, fees, taxes and market sequence. Source: Cooley, Hubbard, Walz (1998) — Sustainable Withdrawal Rates From Your Retirement Portfolio, Trinity Study; updates by Bengen and Wade Pfau.
| Horizon | Illustrative starting rate | Portfolio multiple |
|---|---|---|
| 30 years | 4.0% | 25× annual expenses |
| 40 years | 3.5% | 28.6× annual expenses |
| 50 years | 3.25% | 30.8× annual expenses |
Rule of 72 — doubling-time table
72 ÷ annual rate = years to double. Close around 4%–12%, with larger error near the edges. Use the exact logarithmic formula when precision matters.
| Annual rate | Years to double |
|---|---|
| 1% | 72.0 |
| 2% | 36.0 |
| 3% | 24.0 |
| 4% | 18.0 |
| 5% | 14.4 |
| 6% | 12.0 |
| 7% | 10.3 |
| 8% | 9.0 |
| 9% | 8.0 |
| 10% | 7.2 |
| 12% | 6.0 |
| 15% | 4.8 |
| 18% | 4.0 |
| 20% | 3.6 |
401(k), IRA, HSA contribution limits by year
Employee elective-deferral limits. For 2026, add catch-up contributions of $8,000 to a 401(k) at age 50+, $1,100 to an IRA at age 50+, and $1,000 to an HSA at age 55+. Source: IRS annual notices (most recent: Notice 2025-67).
| Year | 401(k) | IRA | HSA self | HSA family |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2020 | $19,500 | $6,000 | $3,550 | $7,100 |
| 2021 | $19,500 | $6,000 | $3,600 | $7,200 |
| 2022 | $20,500 | $6,000 | $3,650 | $7,300 |
| 2023 | $22,500 | $6,500 | $3,850 | $7,750 |
| 2024 | $23,000 | $7,000 | $4,150 | $8,300 |
| 2025 | $23,500 | $7,000 | $4,300 | $8,550 |
| 2026 | $24,500 | $7,500 | $4,400 | $8,750 |
Compound interest — quotable case studies
Future value of regular monthly contributions in nominal dollars, with deposits at each month-end. Computed with the standard FV-of-annuity formula. Verify any row in our compound interest calculator.
| Monthly | Rate | Years | Future value |
|---|---|---|---|
| $100 | 7% | 30 | $121,997 |
| $250 | 7% | 30 | $304,993 |
| $500 | 7% | 30 | $609,985 |
| $500 | 8% | 30 | $745,180 |
| $500 | 7% | 40 | $1,312,407 |
| $1,000 | 7% | 30 | $1,219,971 |
| $1,000 | 7% | 40 | $2,624,813 |
US household debt reference
The New York Fed publishes aggregate household-debt balances and age-disaggregated charts from its Consumer Credit Panel. The linked quarterly report does not provide the median household-debt-by-age estimates that were previously shown here, so we do not present them as medians.
Use the latest NY Fed report for current totals and definitions; its age charts measure balances and shares rather than household medians.
US median household net worth by age
Net worth = assets minus liabilities. Median, not mean — mean is heavily skewed by the top 1%. Source: Federal Reserve Survey of Consumer Finances, 2022 wave (most recent triennial).
| Age group | Median net worth |
|---|---|
| Under 35 | $39,000 |
| 35-44 | $135,600 |
| 45-54 | $247,200 |
| 55-64 | $364,500 |
| 65-74 | $409,900 |
| 75+ | $335,600 |
US inflation reference
- Long-run US inflation (1928-present): ~3.0% per year. Source: BLS CPI-U.
- Federal Reserve target: 2.0% per year on PCE inflation.
- 2022 peak: 9.1% (June 2022) — highest since 1981.
- 2026 current trailing 12mo: see BLS CPI release for latest monthly figure.
Sources & methodology
- S&P 500 returns: Damodaran NYU Stern historical returns dataset.
- 4% rule: Cooley, Hubbard, Walz (1998) Trinity Study; Bengen (1994); Pfau ongoing updates.
- Contribution limits: IRS annual notices (Notice 2024-80, 2025-67, etc.).
- Household debt: NY Fed Household Debt & Credit Report, quarterly; age charts show balances and shares.
- Median net worth: Federal Reserve Survey of Consumer Finances, 2022 triennial wave.
- Inflation: BLS Consumer Price Index.
- Compound interest formula: standard FV-of-annuity: FV = PMT × ((1 + r/n)^(n×t) − 1) / (r/n). Reproducible in any spreadsheet.
Citing this page: Snowballr Editorial Team. "Personal Finance Fast Facts (2026)." snowballr.io/fast-facts. Reviewed 2026-10-03.
Run your own numbers
- Compound interest calculator — run any case study on the page above.
- Retirement calculator — see what your savings rate gets you.
- 4% rule calculator — model your specific retirement portfolio.
- Rule of 72 calculator — extended table with custom rates.
- Snowballr research — original Monte Carlo studies behind the numbers.